Plants show extensive phenotypic plasticity to maximize reproduction under constantly changing environmental conditions. The presence of biotic factors such as herbivorous insects can negatively affect plant fitness, as well as changes in abiotic factors such as increased temperatures and reduced water availability. To negate the negative effects of such factors on fitness, plants alter their phenotype. In flowering plants, phenotypic plasticity induced by biotic and abiotic factors extents to flowers. Since flower traits determine plant attractiveness for flower visitors, phenotypic changes in flowers come with potential consequences for plant interactions with flower visitors and plant reproduction. We investigated how flowering mustard plants (<i>Brassica </i>spp.) respond to biotic (herbivory) and abiotic (increased temperature) factors and the consequences for mutualistic and antagonistic flower visitors and plant reproduction. We show that herbivory induces extensive changes in the floral phenotype, including attractive traits such as flower shape, colour, and scent, as well as defence chemistry such as glucosinolate concentrations. These changes alter plant interactions with mutualistic pollinators and antagonistic flower feeders and have plant fitness consequences. Increased temperature also induces extensive changes in the floral phenotype, with mostly negative effects on plant-pollinator interactions and plant reproduction. We discuss the observed consequences of plant phenotypic plasticity in flowering plants for sustainable crop production.

Plant phenotypic plasticity in response to biotic and abiotic factors influences plant interactions with flower visitors and plant reproduction

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